Design Methodology Essay Example for Free

Design Methodology Essay A design methodology is series of phases that guide a project lifecycle. Generally speaking there are an uncountable number of design methodologies, but the two most utilised are the predictive and the adaptive approach. The predicative approach assumes that a project can be planned in advance and the adaptive approach assumes the opposite. These design methodologies are also referred to as traditional or waterfall approach and spiral or iterative approach respectively. The phases involved generally fall into the categories of planning, analysis, design, implementation and support. Whether implementing the predictive or adaptive approach, each phase is an important step in the design methodology but can differ depending on the approach taken. Additional, depending on the design methodology implemented, the phases may not exist as separate entities and can be combined, split up or even removed all together. During the planning phase the problem and scope are defined, a work breakdown structure and schedule is developed, a feasibility study is undertaken, team members are assigned and official approval is sought for commencement. The analysis phase involves gathering information relevant to the scope of the problem, constructing models or prototypes to assist information gathering, defining the goals or requirements and assessing and prioritising those goals or requirements. Information gathering techniques involve interviews, observation, reviewing industry standards, questionnaires, joint application design (JAD) sessions and general research. The design phase includes designing and integrating the system controls, designing the system and designing the system interfaces. The implementation phase involves constructing the system, verifying and testing the system, data conversion, training users, documenting the system and installation of the system. Finally, the support phase encompasses maintenance of the system, improving the systems and providing continual support for users of the system. The traditional or waterfall approach follows a sequential set of phases that need to be complete in order, one after the other. In most cases the waterfall approach does not contain overlapping phases and each phase must be completed before beginning the next phase. On the other hand, the adaptive approach involves repeating phases and/or overlapping phases. Usually the phases are repeated in a looping or spiral fashion but can also follow the more traditional linear pattern with overlap or loopbacks to only a few of the phases. Design methodologies encompass not only how the project lifecycle is planned out but also the models, tools and techniques used to assist the project lifecycle. Models can include anything from diagrams and charts to real world representations and abstract representations. Tools range from simple programs to produce models to complex Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools. Finally, techniques consist of step-by-step instructions, guidelines or advice to assist the completion of the phases or the project lifecycle. Design methodologies are mostly notably applied to project management and technological industries such as software development. In project management, design methodologies allow projects to be directed to achieve the expected goals within the given constraints. Technological industries also follow a very similar approach to project management. Methodologies can also be applied to everyday tasks, especially within the area of business. In retail, staff are often given guidelines on how to deal with customer complaints. Most notably, ALARA involves the steps of acknowledge, listen, ask questions, recap and act. This is in essence a design methodology which begins with the planning phase (acknowledge), the analysis and design phase (listen and ask questions), the support phase (recap) and implementation phase (act).

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The 1980’s The decade of the 1980’s is universally known for its brightly colored leggings, and teased hair. However, most of us tend forget the events that inspired these widely recognized trends. Political power, economic instability, and Sequins, lace, and tutu’s are merely an illusion of what the eighties were truly about. The social and economic events of the 1980’s had a severe impact on the fashion choices of American women during this time. The political events in America throughout the eighties will always be remembered when saying one simple, yet extremely packed name, Ronald Reagan. In 1981 Reagan was elected with one of the countries highest overall acceptance rates. Reagan was a former Hollywood actor his charisma and optimistic style wore off on people and America loved him. "We will always remember. We will always be proud. We will always be prepared, so we may always be free." [at the D-Day Commemoration in Normandy] Reagan had a direct, to the point that republicans loved and democrats respected. With Reagans election came promises of a bright future for the US, like tax cuts and lower spending. "[G]overnment's view of the economy could be summed up in a few short phrases: If it moves, tax it. If it keeps moving, regulate it. And if it stops moving, subsidize it." [Reagan speaking about the White House Conference on Small Business] However after a short time, military spending began to rise, causing cuts from j obs and some tax increases. These and other choices Ronald Reagan made in office became known as â€Å"Reaganomics.† The culture was also changing throughout this time as well, a slang term known as the â€Å"yuppie† was born. This term was commonly used to describe a baby boomer, with a college education, well p... ...ng a statement wherever they went and the designers of today are still trying to accentuate the body and broadcast sexuality. Ad campaign designs were changed extraordinarily during the 1980’s by adopting the idea that pitching a product with a glamorous woman, home, or family would create the need for consumers to buy a good or service solely for the purpose of have having a better lifestyle. This advertising idea traveled through the last few decades and is still present in the American society today. The beliefs of the eighties were invigorating and gave adolescences the choice to be whatever they wanted to be. Whether that was a pop-icon, an inventor, or a politician, the 1980’s was a time of empowerment and optimism. These principals are still taught to young people in our society today preaching the values of self-worth and perseverance to follow their dreams.

Modelling the Inflation Process in Nigeria

MODELLING THE INFLATION PROCESS IN NIGERIA 2. Nigeria’s inflation experience Nigeria has experienced all manner of inflationary episodes – from creeping to moderate and from high to galloping (see Table 1 and Figure 1). Average inflation during the period 1960–1972 was relatively low, the historical average rate being 5. 01%. When assessed on an annual basis, however, rising prices became a cause for concern for the then military government when in 1969 the inflation rate hit double digits at 10. 36%. Government’s concern seems to have been justified by the fact that Nigeria was experiencing double-digit inflation for the first time, in the face of a raging civil war whose end was not then in sight. In reaction, government imposed a general wage freeze for a period of one year. Apparently aware of possible opposition by labour unions, price control measures were introduced with the official promulgation of the Price Control Decree, early in 1970 (see Fashoyin, 1984, for comprehensive discussion of anti-inflation measures taken during this period). Inflationary pressures continued unabated, however, even with price controls. Table 1: Inflation episodes in Nigeria Period Average 1960–1972 5. 01 1973–1985 17. 96 1986–1995 31. 30 1986–2002 13. 34 Source: Computed by the authors Pressures for salary increases led to the setting up of the Wages and Salaries Review Commission. The Commission eventually granted salary increases to all categories of public service employees, and similar adjustments were later made in the private sector. These awards, which came at a time when the dislocation of domestic production and marketing as a result of the civil war had not been fully repaired, generated a measure of excess demand in the economy. This is likely to have been responsible for the rise in the rate of inflation by 16. 0% in 1971. Government’s immediate response was to lift import restrictions on several categories of goods. Excise duties on a number of goods were also reduced. A credit policy that favoured the production of food was also put in place. These efforts, coupled with the establishment of the Nigerian National Supply Company (NNSC), were credited with yielding the relatively low rate of inflation of 3. 2% recorded in 1972. The period 1973–1985 was one of greater inflationary pressures than the period 1960–1972, with an average inflation rate in those years of 17. 96%. The effects of the 3 RP 182_Olubusoye_maintext. pmd 21/10/2008, 14:29 3 6 RESEARCH PAPER 182 Exchange rate regimes and inflation in Nigeria Inflation and exchange rates have been identified as two of the key â€Å"barometers† of economic performance (Rutasitara, 2004). Exchange rate arrangements in Nigeria have undergone significant changes over the past four decades, shifting from a fixed regime in the 1960s to a pegged arrangement between the 1970s and the mid 1980s, and finally to various types of floating regime adopted in 1986 with the SAP. A regime of managed float, without any strong commitment to defending any particular parity, has been the predominant characteristic of the floating regime in Nigeria since 1986. Exchange rate policy emerged as one of the controversial policy instruments in developing countries in the 1980s, with vehement opposition to devaluation for fear of its inflationary impact, among other effects. Nigeria faced such a situation and there has since been interest in the performance of inflation and the role of the exchange rate in the process. The peculiarity of the Nigerian foreign exchange market needs to be highlighted. The country’s foreign exchange earnings are more than 90% dependent on crude oil export receipts. The result is that the volatility of the world oil market prices has a direct impact on the supply of foreign exchange. Moreover, the oil sector contributes more than 80% of government revenue. Thus, when the world oil price is high, the revenue shared by the three tiers of government rises correspondingly, and as has been observed since the early 1970s, elicits comparable expenditure increases, which are then difficult to bring down when oil prices collapse and revenues fall. Indeed, such unsustainable expenditure levels have been at the root of high overnment deficit spending. It became a matter of serious concern that despite the huge amount of foreign exchange, which the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) supplied to the foreign exchange market, the impact was not reflected in the performance of the real sector of the economy. Arising from Nigeria’s high import propensity of finished consumer goods, the foreign exchange earnings from oil continued to generate output and employm ent growth in other countries from which Nigeria’s imports originated. This development necessitated a change in policy on 22 July 2002, when the demand pressure in the foreign exchange market intensified and the depletion in external reserves level persisted. The CBN thus reintroduced the Dutch auction system (DAS) to replace the inter-bank foreign exchange market (IFEM). Since then, the DAS has been largely successful in achieving the objectives of the monetary authorities. Generally, it assisted in narrowing the arbitrage premium from double digits to a single digit, until the emergence of irrational market exuberance in the fourth quarter of 2003. Figure 2 charts the details of the movements in inflation and the parallel market premium over the official exchange rate. As can be seen in the figure, movements of the parallel exchange rate premium and inflation rate were very close, especially during the mid 1970 and early 1990s. Indeed, this was the period of widest divergence between the official and parallel market exchange rates. As can be seen from the graph, the peaks and troughs almost always go together, thus confirming that the parallel market exchange rate was significantly correlated with the inflation rate. RP 182_Olubusoye_maintext. pmd 21/10/2008, 14:29 6

Peoples Mojahedin Organization of Iran v. United States Department of State Free Essay Example, 1000 words

This wasn’t the case here (McCormack and McDonald, 2006). The document, when analyzed by various analysts was found to be filled with one-sided reviews of past activities, dating back in the 1980’s and the 1990’s by the MeK. The department did not give any pro and cons of the activities mentioned by the MeK in their petition to the department and were all pointing towards the activities conducted by the organization way before 2001, after which the organization claims to have changed. Some descriptions given in the document was even contradictory to the activities of the MeK such as, â€Å"On October 12, 2006, I received information that questioned activities were going on at the University compound, [C]amp Ashraf specifically. The information came through the State Department from Europe that the MeK was assembling up to 1,500 Iraqis at the compound, supported by the MeK. I conducted a visit of the compound and found no foundation to the information we received. On site, we went into every building on the compound and I spoke with several people. The compound [was] being used to house Iraqi workers because of the attacks on the roads. We will write a custom essay sample on People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran v. United States Department of State or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now Rather than travel back and forth every day, they stay[Ed] on Ashraf during the week†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This was a comment by Colonel Wesley M. Martin in the report. Claims like these seem baseless as the MeK has provided the Department of State with ample evidences which are contradicting these statements (Murphy, 2002). The Department of State had ample evidences to support the cause of MeK and was even facing some pressure from outer sources such as the United Kingdom. The Court of the UK sent a 144-page independent assessment on the activities of the MeK and had clearly stated that the MeK had not violated any sort of American Law or restriction at Camp Ashraf in Iraq. The statements in the report clearly contradicted these claims by the U. K. court and the Department of State clearly dismissed their significance. So much so that they didn’t even mention any proof supporting their point of view in contradicting this assessment. Some arguments have also been presented that the Department of State did this in order to satisfy the Iranian regime as they are in clear opposition to the MeK. The department of State did not want to disrupt the already weak diplomatic ties between the two governments as the Iranian government would have been displeased on the removal of MeK from FTO (Gurulà ©, 2 008). After hearing all these summaries and petitions from both sides, the U. S.